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Introduction to RF Radiation Safety

Principles, Measurement, Standards and Safe Practice

Michael J. Ryan

Introduction to RF Radiation Safety explains why modern RF exposure limits exist, how RF electromagnetic fields interact with the human body, and how recognized engineering methods are used to assess exposure and demonstrate compliance with international safety standards. It provides a practical, scientifically grounded introduction to the engineering principles, biological foundations, and safety management practices that underpin the safe use of RF technology.

Contents

  1. Blurb
  2. Preface
  3. 1 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) SAFETY
    1. 1.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. 1.2 WHAT IS RF RADIATION?
    3. 1.3 IONIZING AND NON-IONIZING RADIATION
      1. 1.3.1 Ionizing Radiation
      2. 1.3.2 Non-Ionizing Radiation
      3. 1.3.3 Types Of Non-Ionizing Radiation
      4. 1.3.4 Why RF Radiation Is Different
    4. 1.4 SOURCES OF RF RADIATION
      1. 1.4.1 Natural Sources
      2. 1.4.2 Artificial Sources
      3. 1.4.3 Managing Exposure
    5. 1.5 RF RADIATION HAZARDS (RADHAZ)
      1. 1.5.1 Hazards To Personnel (HERP)
      2. 1.5.2 Hazards To Equipment (HERE)
      3. 1.5.3 Hazards To Ordnance (HERO)
      4. 1.5.4 Hazards To Fuel (HERF)
      5. 1.5.5 Scope Of RADHAZ In This Book
    6. 1.6 RF RADIATION SAFETY AND WORK HEALTH AND SAFETY
    7. 1.7 HOW RF SAFETY IS ACHIEVED
    8. 1.8 ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK
    9. 1.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND LOOKING AHEAD
    10. 1.10 REVISION QUESTIONS
    11. 1.11 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 1.11.1 Why Is RF Radiation Safety Necessary?
      2. 1.11.2 Has Anyone Ever Been Injured By RF Radiation?
      3. 1.11.3 Why Is RF Radiation Sometimes Confused With Nuclear Radiation?
      4. 1.11.4 IF RF Radiation Is Everywhere, Why Aren'T We All Affected?
      5. 1.11.5 How Did Modern RF Safety Standards Develop?
      6. 1.11.6 Why Are Warning Signs Used Around RF Transmitters?
      7. 1.11.7 Why Don'T Mobile Phones And Wi-Fi Routers Require Warning Signs?
      8. 1.11.8 Who Develops RF Radiation Safety Standards?
      9. 1.11.9 Is RF Radiation Safety Only Relevant To Engineers?
      10. 1.11.10 What Will I Learn In The Rest Of This Book?
  4. 2 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
    1. 2.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. 2.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALOG SIGNALS
      1. 2.2.1 The Sinusoid
      2. 2.2.2 Complicated Waveforms
      3. 2.2.3 The Frequency Domain
      4. 2.2.4 Phase
      5. 2.2.5 General Expression For A Sinusoidal Waveform
      6. 2.2.6 Speech Signals
      7. 2.2.7 Filtering
      8. 2.2.8 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
    3. 2.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL SIGNALS
      1. 2.3.1 Baseband Digital Signals
      2. 2.3.2 Spectral Content, Bandwidth, And Inter-Symbol Interference
      3. 2.3.3 Bandwidth Of Baseband Digital Signals
    4. 2.4 SIGNAL MAGNITUDE AND RF EXPOSURE
    5. 2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
    6. 2.6 LOOKING AHEAD
    7. 2.7 REVISION QUESTIONS
    8. 2.8 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 2.8.1 What Is The Difference Between Analog And Digital Signals?
      2. 2.8.2 What Is A Sinusoidal Wave And Why Is It Important?
      3. 2.8.3 What Is The Frequency Domain And Why Do Engineers Use It?
      4. 2.8.4 What Is Bandwidth And Why Is It Important?
      5. 2.8.5 What Frequencies Are Used For Communications?
  5. 3 MODULATION
    1. 3.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. 3.2 ANALOG MODULATION
    3. 3.3 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
      1. 3.3.1 Modulation Factor
      2. 3.3.2 AM Modulators
      3. 3.3.3 Demodulation Of AM
      4. 3.3.4 Applications Of Conventional AM
      5. 3.3.5 Power Contained In An AM Wave
      6. 3.3.6 Double-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier AM
      7. 3.3.7 Single-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier AM
      8. 3.3.8 Vestigial-Sideband AM
      9. 3.3.9 Independent-Sideband AM
    4. 3.4 FREQUENCY MODULATION
      1. 3.4.1 Frequency Deviation
      2. 3.4.2 Modulation Index And Deviation Ratio
      3. 3.4.3 Frequency Spectrum Of An FM Wave
      4. 3.4.4 Bandwidth
      5. 3.4.5 Power Contained In An FM Wave
      6. 3.4.6 FM Capture Effect
      7. 3.4.7 Narrowband FM And Wideband FM
      8. 3.4.8 Pre-Emphasis And De-Emphasis
      9. 3.4.9 FM Threshold Effect
      10. 3.4.10 FM Generation And Detection
      11. 3.4.11 FM Applications
      12. 3.4.12 Advantages And Disadvantages Of FM Over AM
      13. 3.4.13 Phase Modulation
    5. 3.5 SUMMARY OF ANALOG MODULATION TECHNIQUES
    6. 3.6 DIGITAL MODULATION
      1. 3.6.1 Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)
      2. 3.6.2 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
    7. 3.7 PSK
      1. 3.7.1 M-Ary PSK (MPSK)
      2. 3.7.2 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
      3. 3.7.3 Amplitude Phase Shift Keying (APSK)
      4. 3.7.4 Spectral Efficiency
      5. 3.7.5 Demodulation
      6. 3.7.6 Summary Of Digital Modulation Methods
    8. 3.8 MODULATION AND RF EXPOSURE
    9. 3.9 LOOKING AHEAD
    10. 3.10 REVISION QUESTIONS
    11. 3.11 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
      1. 3.11.1 What Is Modulation And Why Is It Necessary?
      2. 3.11.2 What Is The Difference Between Baseband And Passband Signals?
      3. 3.11.3 What Is The Difference Between Analog And Digital Modulation?
      4. 3.11.4 What Is Amplitude Modulation (AM) And How Does It Work?
      5. 3.11.5 Why Is Single-Sideband (SSB) Used For HF Radio?
      6. 3.11.6 Why Does Frequency Modulation (FM) Reject Noise Better Than AM?
      7. 3.11.7 What Determines The Bandwidth Of A Modulated Signal?
      8. 3.11.8 What Is Spectral Efficiency And Why Is It Important?
      9. 3.11.9 What Is Quadrature Modulation And Why Is It So Widely Used?
      10. 3.11.10 How Do Engineers Choose The Best Modulation Scheme?
  6. 4 RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION
    1. 4.1 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
    2. 4.2 A SUMMARY OF PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES
      1. 4.2.1 Ground Waves
      2. 4.2.2 Sky Waves And Scattered Waves
      3. 4.2.3 Propagation Modes Related To Frequency Band
    3. 4.3 SPACE-WAVE COMMUNICATIONS
      1. 4.3.1 Transmit Power And Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
      2. 4.3.2 Received Power And The Effective Aperture
      3. 4.3.3 Equivalent Radius Of The Earth
      4. 4.3.4 Free-Space Loss
      5. 4.3.5 Reflection Loss
      6. 4.3.6 Diffraction Loss
      7. 4.3.7 Clutter Loss
      8. 4.3.8 Atmospheric Losses
      9. 4.3.9 Radio Path Loss Assessment
    4. 4.4 SURFACE-WAVE COMMUNICATIONS
      1. 4.4.1 Conductivity
      2. 4.4.2 Frequency Of Operation
      3. 4.4.3 Other Factors
    5. 4.5 SKY-WAVE COMMUNICATIONS
      1. 4.5.1 The Structure Of The Ionosphere
      2. 4.5.2 Communication By Sky Wave
      3. 4.5.3 The Best Frequency To Use
      4. 4.5.4 Summary Of Ionospheric Variations
      5. 4.5.5 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Sky-Wave Communications
    6. 4.6 SCATTERED-WAVE COMMUNICATIONS
      1. 4.6.1 Troposcatter Communications
      2. 4.6.2 Ionospheric Scatter Communications
      3. 4.6.3 Meteor Burst Communications
    7. 4.7 SUMMARY
    8. 4.8 LOOKING AHEAD
    9. 4.9 REVISION QUESTIONS
    10. 4.10 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 4.10.1 What Is Radio-Wave Propagation And Why Is It So Important?
      2. 4.10.2 Why Do Radio Waves Become Weaker AS They Travel?
      3. 4.10.3 Why Can Radio Signals Travel Beyond The Horizon?
      4. 4.10.4 Why Do Radio Signals Sometimes Fade OR Suddenly Become Much Stronger?
      5. 4.10.5 Why Can Radio Waves Bend Around Hills And Buildings?
      6. 4.10.6 Why Do Different Frequency Bands Behave So Differently?
      7. 4.10.7 How Does The Ionosphere Allow Radio Signals To Travel Around The World?
      8. 4.10.8 Why Do Rain, Fog, And The Atmosphere Affect Microwave Communication?
      9. 4.10.9 Which Propagation Mode Should Be Used For Different Types Of Communication?
      10. 4.10.10 How Do Engineers Predict Whether A Radio Link Will Work?
      11. 4.10.11 Why Doesn'T Every Communication System Simply Use The Highest Frequency Available?
      12. 4.10.12 How Does Radio-Wave Propagation Affect An RF Exposure Assessment?
  7. 5 ANTENNAS
    1. 5.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. 5.2 AN ISOTROPIC RADIATOR
    3. 5.3 ANTENNA PROPERTIES
      1. 5.3.1 Antenna Gain
      2. 5.3.2 Effective Aperture
      3. 5.3.3 Beamwidth
      4. 5.3.4 Low Sidelobes
      5. 5.3.5 Polarization
      6. 5.3.6 Bandwidth
      7. 5.3.7 Antenna Impedance
      8. 5.3.8 Radiation Resistance And Antenna Efficiency
      9. 5.3.9 Physical Dimensions
      10. 5.3.10 Field Regions: Reactive Near Field, Radiating Near Field, And Far Field
    4. 5.4 THE DIPOLE AND MONOPOLE
      1. 5.4.1 Radiation Pattern Of Dipoles And Monopoles
      2. 5.4.2 Tuning Of Dipoles And Monopoles
      3. 5.4.3 Current Distribution On Dipoles And Monopoles
      4. 5.4.4 Balanced And Unbalanced Feeders
      5. 5.4.5 Narrowband Vs Broadband
    5. 5.5 TRAVELING WAVE ANTENNAS
    6. 5.6 HF SURFACE WAVE ANTENNAS
    7. 5.7 HF SKY WAVE ANTENNAS
      1. 5.7.1 Short Range (0–300 Km)
      2. 5.7.2 Medium Range (300–1,500 Km)
      3. 5.7.3 Long Range (>1,500)
      4. 5.7.4 Alignment Of Sky-Wave Antennas
      5. 5.7.5 Polarization Of Sky-Wave Signals
    8. 5.8 VHF GROUND WAVE ANTENNAS
      1. 5.8.1 Rod/Whip Antennas
      2. 5.8.2 Dipole Antennas
      3. 5.8.3 Folded Dipoles
      4. 5.8.4 Biconical Antennas
      5. 5.8.5 Corner Reflector
      6. 5.8.6 Loop Antenna
      7. 5.8.7 Traveling Wave Antennas—Inverted-V Antenna
      8. 5.8.8 Elevated Antennas
      9. 5.8.9 Array Antennas
    9. 5.9 UHF / SHF ANTENNAS
      1. 5.9.1 Horn Antennas
      2. 5.9.2 The Parabolic Reflector
      3. 5.9.3 Helical Antenna
      4. 5.9.4 Microstrip Patch Antennas
    10. 5.10 PHASED ARRAYS
    11. 5.11 MULTIBEAM ANTENNAS
    12. 5.12 BEAM SHAPING
    13. 5.13 CHAPTER SUMMARY
    14. 5.14 LOOKING AHEAD
    15. 5.15 REVISION QUESTIONS
    16. 5.16 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 5.16.1 Why Do Radio Systems Need Antennas?
      2. 5.16.2 Why Are Some Antennas Much Larger Than Others?
      3. 5.16.3 What Determines How Far An Antenna Can Communicate?
      4. 5.16.4 Why Do High-Gain Antennas Have Narrow Beams?
      5. 5.16.5 Why Must Antennas Be Matched To Their Transmission Lines?
      6. 5.16.6 Why Are There So Many Different Types Of Antennas?
      7. 5.16.7 How Do Modern Smart Antennas And Phased Arrays Work?
      8. 5.16.8 What Is MIMO And Why Does It Increase Wireless Capacity?
      9. 5.16.9 Why Are Satellite Antennas Different From Mobile Phone Antennas?
      10. 5.16.10 How Are Future Antennas Changing Wireless Communications?
  8. 6 EMISSIONS, EXPOSURE, AND DOSIMETRY
    1. 6.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. 6.2 NATURAL SOURCES OF EMISSIONS
      1. 6.2.1 Extraterrestrial RF Sources
      2. 6.2.2 Terrestrial RF Sources
    3. 6.3 HUMAN-MADE RF SOURCES
      1. 6.3.1 Describing Transmitter Power
    4. 6.4 EXPOSURE
      1. 6.4.1 General Public Exposure
      2. 6.4.2 Occupational Exposure
      3. 6.4.3 Exposure Guidelines And Standards
    5. 6.5 RF DOSIMETRY
      1. 6.5.1 From External Exposure To Internal Fields And Energy Absorption
      2. 6.5.2 Dosimetric Quantities
      3. 6.5.3 Determining Dosimetric Quantities
    6. 6.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
    7. 6.7 LOOKING AHEAD
    8. 6.8 REVISION QUESTIONS
    9. 6.9 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 6.9.1 Why Doesn’T A High-Power Transmitter Always Produce High Human Exposure?
      2. 6.9.2 Why Can A Mobile Phone Produce Higher Exposure Than A Broadcasting Station?
      3. 6.9.3 What Is The Difference Between External RF Exposure And RF Dosimetry?
      4. 6.9.4 Why Does Distance Matter So Much In RF Safety?
      5. 6.9.5 Are We Constantly Exposed To Natural RF Radiation?
      6. 6.9.6 Why Doesn’T Every Wireless Device Transmit At Full Power All The Time?
      7. 6.9.7 Why Are Radar Transmitters Described By Peak Power Instead Of Average Power?
      8. 6.9.8 Why Are There Different Exposure Limits For Workers And The General Public?
      9. 6.9.9 Why Can’T Internal RF Dosimetric Quantities Usually Be Measured Directly?
      10. 6.9.10 Why Is The Progression From Emissions To Exposure To RF Dosimetry Important?
  9. 7 RF INTERACTION WITH BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
    1. 7.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. 7.2 HOW RF ENERGY INTERACTS WITH THE HUMAN BODY
      1. 7.2.1 Direct Coupling
      2. 7.2.2 Indirect Coupling
      3. 7.2.3 Frequency Dependence And Penetration Depth
      4. 7.2.4 From Energy Absorption To Biological Effects
    3. 7.3 ESTABLISHED BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
      1. 7.3.1 Thermal Effects
      2. 7.3.2 Electrical Stimulation
      3. 7.3.3 Microwave Auditory Effect
      4. 7.3.4 Indirect Biological Effects
      5. 7.3.5 Biological Effects That Have Not Been Established
    4. 7.4 EVIDENCE FOR HEALTH EFFECTS
    5. 7.5 RF SAFETY PHILOSOPHY
    6. 7.6 ICNIRP EXPOSURE GUIDELINES
      1. 7.6.1 Scientific Basis
      2. 7.6.2 Basic Restrictions And Reference Levels
      3. 7.6.3 Exposure Limits And Dependencies
    7. 7.7 RECOGNITION OF RF OVEREXPOSURE
      1. 7.7.1 Medical Assessment
      2. 7.7.2 Exposure Prevention
    8. 7.8 FROM BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE TO COMPLIANCE
    9. 7.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY
    10. 7.10 LOOKING AHEAD
    11. 7.11 REVISION QUESTIONS
    12. 7.12 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 7.12.1 IF RF Radiation Cannot Ionize Atoms, How Can It Cause Harm At Sufficiently High Exposure?
      2. 7.12.2 Why Doesn’T RF Radiation Make People Radioactive?
      3. 7.12.3 Why Can Whole-Body Absorption Be High Around 70–100 MHz For An Upright Adult?
      4. 7.12.4 Why Do The Eyes Receive Particular Attention In RF Safety?
      5. 7.12.5 Why Do RF Exposure Limits Change With Frequency?
      6. 7.12.6 Why Do Scientists Still Study RF Radiation IF Exposure Standards Already Exist?
      7. 7.12.7 Can You Feel RF Radiation?
      8. 7.12.8 Why Are Some People Concerned About "Non-Thermal" Effects?
      9. 7.12.9 How Is Scientific Evidence Used To Develop And Update RF Exposure Limits?
      10. 7.12.10 Do RF Exposure Limits Also Protect Implanted Medical Devices?
  10. 8 RF SAFETY ASSESSMENT
    1. 8.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. 8.2 THE PURPOSE OF RF SAFETY ASSESSMENT
    3. 8.3 PLANNING AN RF SAFETY ASSESSMENT
    4. 8.4 QUANTITIES USED IN RF SAFETY ASSESSMENT
      1. 8.4.1 Electric-Field Strength
      2. 8.4.2 Magnetic-Field Strength
      3. 8.4.3 Incident Power Density And Energy Density
      4. 8.4.4 Current And Contact Current
      5. 8.4.5 Dosimetric Quantities
      6. 8.4.6 Choosing The Appropriate Quantity
    5. 8.5 NEAR FIELDS AND FAR FIELDS
      1. 8.5.1 Near Field
      2. 8.5.2 Far Field
      3. 8.5.3 Transition Between Regions
      4. 8.5.4 Measurement Implications
    6. 8.6 RF MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS
      1. 8.6.1 Broadband Field Meters
      2. 8.6.2 Frequency-Selective Measurement Systems
      3. 8.6.3 Current Measurement Systems
      4. 8.6.4 Selecting The Measurement System
    7. 8.7 MEASUREMENT PROBES AND ANTENNAS
      1. 8.7.1 Measurement Probes
      2. 8.7.2 Calibrated Measurement Antennas
      3. 8.7.3 Selecting And Positioning A Sensor
    8. 8.8 MEASURING DIFFERENT RF SOURCES
      1. 8.8.1 Broadcasting Transmitters
      2. 8.8.2 Mobile Communications Base Stations
      3. 8.8.3 Radar Systems
      4. 8.8.4 Fixed Microwave Links And Satellite Earth Stations
      5. 8.8.5 Industrial RF Equipment
      6. 8.8.6 Medical Equipment
      7. 8.8.7 Consumer And Close-Body Wireless Devices
      8. 8.8.8 Multiple RF Sources
      9. 8.8.9 Source-Specific Measurement Plan
    9. 8.9 PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS
      1. 8.9.1 Instrument Suitability, Calibration, And Field Checks
      2. 8.9.2 Measurement Configuration And Settings
      3. 8.9.3 Temporal Sampling And Averaging
      4. 8.9.4 Spatial Sampling And Probe Position
      5. 8.9.5 Environmental And Measurement-System Perturbation
      6. 8.9.6 Measurement Uncertainty And Decision Rules
      7. 8.9.7 Records And Reporting
    10. 8.10 ANALYTICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL METHODS
      1. 8.10.1 Analytical And Simplified Models
      2. 8.10.2 Full-Wave Numerical Methods
      3. 8.10.3 Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method
      4. 8.10.4 Finite-Element Method
      5. 8.10.5 Method Of Moments
      6. 8.10.6 Ray-Based And Hybrid Methods
      7. 8.10.7 Computational Human Models
      8. 8.10.8 Model Verification, Validation, And Uncertainty
      9. 8.10.9 Combining Measurement And Calculation
    11. 8.11 INTERPRETATION OF ASSESSMENT RESULTS
      1. 8.11.1 What The Result Represents
      2. 8.11.2 Operating Conditions And Variability
      3. 8.11.3 Spatial Representativeness
      4. 8.11.4 Multiple Sources And Frequencies
      5. 8.11.5 Uncertainty And The Decision Rule
      6. 8.11.6 Compliance Conclusion And Reassessment
    12. 8.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY
    13. 8.13 LOOKING AHEAD
    14. 8.14 REVISION QUESTIONS
    15. 8.15 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 8.15.1 Why Can'T Every RF Safety Assessment Be Performed With A Simple Field Meter?
      2. 8.15.2 Why Are Near-Field Measurements More Difficult Than Far-Field Measurements?
      3. 8.15.3 Why Can'T Engineers Measure Sar Directly In A Person?
      4. 8.15.4 Why Do Two Instruments Sometimes Give Different Readings?
      5. 8.15.5 Why Can RF Measurements Change Even When The Transmitter Power Has Not Changed?
      6. 8.15.6 Why Are Measurements Taken At Several Locations Instead Of Just One?
      7. 8.15.7 Why Do Engineers Use Computer Models Instead Of Just Making Measurements?
      8. 8.15.8 Why Is Measuring RF Exposure More Difficult Than Measuring Voltage OR Temperature?
      9. 8.15.9 How Do Engineers Know Their Measurements Are Correct?
      10. 8.15.10 Why Doesn'T A High Measurement Always Mean There Is A Hazard?
  11. 9 RF RADIATION SAFETY GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS
    1. 9.1 EVOLUTION OF RF RADIATION SAFETY GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS
      1. 9.1.1 Early Discoveries And Medical Applications
      2. 9.1.2 Wireless Communications, Radar, And Occupational Exposure
      3. 9.1.3 Early Power-Density Limits
      4. 9.1.4 Biological Research And The Development Of RF Dosimetry
      5. 9.1.5 From External Fields To Internal Dosimetric Quantities
      6. 9.1.6 Development Of Australian Standards
      7. 9.1.7 International Harmonization
      8. 9.1.8 Mobile Communications And Contemporary Systems
      9. 9.1.9 Summary
    2. 9.2 MAJOR RF RADIATION SAFETY GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS
      1. 9.2.1 International Scientific Guidelines
      2. 9.2.2 Regional And National Exposure Frameworks
      3. 9.2.3 Assessment And Compliance Standards
      4. 9.2.4 RF And Electromagnetic-Energy Safety Management
      5. 9.2.5 Engineering Recommendations
      6. 9.2.6 Regulatory Guidance
      7. 9.2.7 Scientific, Policy, And Legislative Foundations
      8. 9.2.8 Standards Summary
    3. 9.3 ICNIRP GUIDELINES
      1. 9.3.1 Protection Philosophy
      2. 9.3.2 Basic Restrictions
      3. 9.3.3 Reference Levels
      4. 9.3.4 Averaging, Brief Exposure, And Multiple Frequencies
      5. 9.3.5 Occupational And General-Public Exposure
      6. 9.3.6 Reduction Factors And Conservative Assumptions
      7. 9.3.7 Role In The Standards Framework
    4. 9.4 ARPANSA RPS S-1 STANDARD
      1. 9.4.1 Purpose, Status, And Scope
      2. 9.4.2 Relationship To The Icnirp Guidelines
      3. 9.4.3 Basic Restrictions, Reference Levels, And Averaging
      4. 9.4.4 Verification Of Compliance
      5. 9.4.5 Exposure Groups And Controlled Areas
      6. 9.4.6 Risk Management And Special Circumstances
      7. 9.4.7 Relationship To Assessment And Regulatory Standards
    5. 9.5 AS/NZS 2772.2
      1. 9.5.1 Purpose, Edition, And Scope
      2. 9.5.2 Assessor Competency And Task Definition
      3. 9.5.3 Assessment Workflow And Preliminary Assessment
      4. 9.5.4 Measurement And Computation
      5. 9.5.5 Post-Processing And Multiple Sources
      6. 9.5.6 Calibration, Validation, And Uncertainty
      7. 9.5.7 Reporting And Supporting Guidance
      8. 9.5.8 Using AS/Nzs 2772.2 With Rps S-1
    6. 9.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
    7. 9.7 LOOKING AHEAD
    8. 9.8 REVISION QUESTIONS
    9. 9.9 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 9.9.1 Why Do Different Countries Sometimes Have Different RF Exposure Standards?
      2. 9.9.2 IF Scientists Continue To Study RF Radiation, Why Aren'T The Exposure Limits Constantly Changing?
      3. 9.9.3 Why Are There Different Exposure Limits For Workers And The General Public?
      4. 9.9.4 What Is The Difference Between A Guideline, A Standard, And A Regulation?
      5. 9.9.5 Why Are There Both Basic Restrictions And Reference Levels?
      6. 9.9.6 IF A Reference Level Is Exceeded, Does That Mean The Area Is Unsafe?
      7. 9.9.7 How Do Reduction Factors And Conservative Assumptions Protect People?
      8. 9.9.8 Why Are RF Exposure Standards Different At Different Frequencies?
      9. 9.9.9 What Is The Difference Between Rps S-1 And AS/Nzs 2772.2?
      10. 9.9.10 Who Decides Whether An RF Exposure Standard Needs To Be Updated?
  12. 10 RF RADIATION SAFETY PLANS
    1. 10.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. 10.2 PRINCIPLES OF RF RADIATION SAFETY MANAGEMENT
      1. 10.2.1 Protection Of People
      2. 10.2.2 Risk-Based Management
      3. 10.2.3 Prevention Before Protection
      4. 10.2.4 Clearly Defined Responsibilities
      5. 10.2.5 Competence Through Training
      6. 10.2.6 Verification And Documentation
      7. 10.2.7 Continuous Improvement
      8. 10.2.8 Summary
    3. 10.3 DEVELOPING AN RF RADIATION SAFETY PLAN
      1. 10.3.1 RF Safety Program And Site- OR Workplace-Specific Plans
      2. 10.3.2 Objectives Of The Plan
      3. 10.3.3 Typical Contents Of An RF Radiation Safety Plan
      4. 10.3.4 Living Documents
      5. 10.3.5 Approval And Document Control
      6. 10.3.6 Relationship To Risk Management
      7. 10.3.7 Summary
    4. 10.4 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
      1. 10.4.1 Senior Management
      2. 10.4.2 The Responsible Person
      3. 10.4.3 RF Safety Officer
      4. 10.4.4 Engineers And Designers
      5. 10.4.5 Supervisors
      6. 10.4.6 Workers
      7. 10.4.7 Contractors
      8. 10.4.8 Visitors
      9. 10.4.9 Manufacturers And Equipment Suppliers
      10. 10.4.10 Shared Responsibility
      11. 10.4.11 Summary
    5. 10.5 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
      1. 10.5.1 Identifying RF Sources
      2. 10.5.2 Identifying Exposure Locations
      3. 10.5.3 Identifying Persons And Exposure Categories
      4. 10.5.4 Direct RF Exposure Hazards
      5. 10.5.5 Indirect And Secondary RF Hazards
      6. 10.5.6 Multiple RF Sources
      7. 10.5.7 Maintenance Activities
      8. 10.5.8 Changes To The Installation
      9. 10.5.9 Site Inspections
      10. 10.5.10 Summary
    6. 10.6 RF RISK ASSESSMENT
      1. 10.6.1 Establishing The Assessment Scope
      2. 10.6.2 Evaluating Exposure
      3. 10.6.3 Comparing Exposure With Applicable Limits
      4. 10.6.4 Considering The Nature Of The Work
      5. 10.6.5 Likelihood And Consequence
      6. 10.6.6 Risk Matrices
      7. 10.6.7 Selecting Appropriate Controls
      8. 10.6.8 Recording The Assessment
      9. 10.6.9 Reviewing The Assessment
      10. 10.6.10 Summary
    7. 10.7 HIERARCHY OF CONTROL MEASURES
      1. 10.7.1 Elimination
      2. 10.7.2 Substitution
      3. 10.7.3 Engineering Controls
      4. 10.7.4 Administrative Controls
      5. 10.7.5 Personal RF Monitors
      6. 10.7.6 Personal Protective Equipment
      7. 10.7.7 Combining Control Measures
      8. 10.7.8 Selecting The Most Appropriate Controls
      9. 10.7.9 Summary
    8. 10.8 CONTROLLED AREAS AND EXCLUSION ZONES
      1. 10.8.1 Controlled Areas
      2. 10.8.2 Occupational Access Within A Controlled Area
      3. 10.8.3 Site-Defined Exclusion Zones
      4. 10.8.4 Public Access Areas
      5. 10.8.5 Establishing Zone Boundaries
      6. 10.8.6 Physical Barriers And Access Control
      7. 10.8.7 Special Installations
      8. 10.8.8 Periodic Review
      9. 10.8.9 Summary
    9. 10.9 SIGNAGE AND SITE MARKING
      1. 10.9.1 Objectives Of RF Safety Signage
      2. 10.9.2 Types Of RF Safety Signs
      3. 10.9.3 Controlled Area Signs
      4. 10.9.4 Exclusion Zone Marking
      5. 10.9.5 Rooftop Installations
      6. 10.9.6 Tower And Mast Installations
      7. 10.9.7 Temporary Signage
      8. 10.9.8 Sign Design
      9. 10.9.9 Inspection And Maintenance
      10. 10.9.10 Signage Is Not A Substitute For Engineering Controls
      11. 10.9.11 Summary
    10. 10.10 SAFE SYSTEMS OF WORK
      1. 10.10.1 Planning The Work
      2. 10.10.2 Work Authorization
      3. 10.10.3 Pre-Work Briefings
      4. 10.10.4 Isolation Of RF Sources
      5. 10.10.5 Lock-Out And Tag-Out
      6. 10.10.6 Verification Before Entry
      7. 10.10.7 Working Near Energized Equipment
      8. 10.10.8 Working At Shared Sites
      9. 10.10.9 Completion Of Work
      10. 10.10.10 Review Of Safe Work Procedures
      11. 10.10.11 Summary
    11. 10.11 TRAINING AND COMPETENCY
      1. 10.11.1 Training Objectives
      2. 10.11.2 Different Levels Of Training
      3. 10.11.3 Induction Training
      4. 10.11.4 Refresher Training
      5. 10.11.5 Contractor Training
      6. 10.11.6 Visitor Information
      7. 10.11.7 Competency Assessment
      8. 10.11.8 Records Of Training
      9. 10.11.9 Supervision
      10. 10.11.10 Promoting An RF Safety Culture
      11. 10.11.11 Summary
    12. 10.12 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
      1. 10.12.1 Pregnancy
      2. 10.12.2 Implanted Medical Devices
      3. 10.12.3 Metallic Implants
      4. 10.12.4 Workers With Medical Conditions
      5. 10.12.5 Visitors
      6. 10.12.6 Contractors
      7. 10.12.7 New OR Inexperienced Workers
      8. 10.12.8 Confidentiality And Respect
      9. 10.12.9 Summary
    13. 10.13 DOCUMENTATION AND RECORD KEEPING
      1. 10.13.1 Exposure Assessment Records
      2. 10.13.2 Risk Assessments
      3. 10.13.3 Equipment Documentation
      4. 10.13.4 Calibration Records
      5. 10.13.5 Training Records
      6. 10.13.6 Maintenance Records
      7. 10.13.7 Incident Records
      8. 10.13.8 Document Control
      9. 10.13.9 Record Retention
      10. 10.13.10 Audits And Reviews
      11. 10.13.11 Summary
    14. 10.14 INCIDENT AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
      1. 10.14.1 Emergency Planning
      2. 10.14.2 Immediate Response
      3. 10.14.3 Suspected RF Over-Exposure
      4. 10.14.4 Medical Assessment
      5. 10.14.5 Securing The Incident Scene
      6. 10.14.6 Incident Investigation
      7. 10.14.7 Corrective And Preventive Actions
      8. 10.14.8 Reporting Requirements
      9. 10.14.9 Learning From Incidents
      10. 10.14.10 Business Continuity
      11. 10.14.11 Summary
    15. 10.15 PROTECTING THE GENERAL PUBLIC
      1. 10.15.1 Identifying Publicly Accessible Areas
      2. 10.15.2 Determining Public Exposure
      3. 10.15.3 Designing For Public Safety
      4. 10.15.4 Restricting Public Access
      5. 10.15.5 Public Signage
      6. 10.15.6 Shared Buildings And Multi-Operator Sites
      7. 10.15.7 Public Information And Enquiries
      8. 10.15.8 Changes Affecting Public Exposure
      9. 10.15.9 Public Overexposure
      10. 10.15.10 Summary
    16. 10.16 AUDITING AND CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
      1. 10.16.1 Objectives Of Auditing
      2. 10.16.2 Internal Audits
      3. 10.16.3 External Audits
      4. 10.16.4 Inspection And Testing Of Physical Controls
      5. 10.16.5 Review Of Documentation
      6. 10.16.6 Worker Consultation And Observation
      7. 10.16.7 Corrective And Preventive Actions
      8. 10.16.8 Management Review
      9. 10.16.9 Continual Improvement
      10. 10.16.10 Performance Indicators
      11. 10.16.11 Summary
    17. 10.17 CHAPTER SUMMARY
    18. 10.18 LOOKING AHEAD
    19. 10.19 REVISION QUESTIONS
    20. 10.20 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)
      1. 10.20.1 Why Does An Organization Need An RF Safety Program IF It Already Complies With Exposure Standards?
      2. 10.20.2 Who Is Responsible For RF Radiation Safety?
      3. 10.20.3 Why Isn'T Measuring The RF Field Enough?
      4. 10.20.4 Why Are Engineering Controls Preferred Over Warning Signs?
      5. 10.20.5 Why Do Workers Still Need Training IF The Site Has Warning Signs?
      6. 10.20.6 Why Must RF Risk Assessments Be Reviewed After Equipment Changes?
      7. 10.20.7 What Should You Do IF You Think You Have Been Overexposed To RF Radiation?
      8. 10.20.8 Why Are Contractors Often At Greater Risk Than Permanent Employees?
      9. 10.20.9 Why Do RF Safety Programs Need Regular Audits?
      10. 10.20.10 Is RF Radiation Safety Mainly About Following Rules?
  13. A COMMON PREFIXES AND THE GREEK ALPHABET
    1. A.1 COMMON PREFIXES
    2. A.2 THE GREEK ALPHABET
  14. B BASIC CIRCUIT THEORY
    1. B.1 VOLTAGE, CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND POWER
    2. B.2 DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT
    3. B.3 AVERAGE AND RMS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
    4. B.4 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
    5. B.5 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
  15. C DECIBELS
    1. C.1 INTRODUCTION
    2. C.2 dBm AND dbW
    3. C.3 VOLTAGE RATIOS IN DECIBELS
    4. C.4 THE VALUE OF DECIBELS
  16. D HUMAN-MADE RF SOURCES
    1. D.1 TRANSMITTERS BY FREQUENCY RANGE
    2. D.2 MOBILE PHONES
    3. D.3 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
    4. D.4 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS
    5. D.5 DOMESTIC RF SOURCES
  17. Frequently Asked Questions