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Beyond-line-of-sight communications in a satellite-denied/degraded environmentMichael J. Ryan

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  • [1] J.T. Bennett, “Industry Interest in Small-Sat Sales Grow”, Defense News, Vol. 24, No. 44, pp. 1-8, 16 Nov 2009.
  • [2] Department of Defence, 2016 Defence White Paper, Department of Defence: Canberra, 2016.
  • [3] Descriptions of communications modes contained here are necessarily brief and therefore occasionally superficial. Full details of the modes are available in M. Ryan, M. Frater and M. Pickering, Fundamentals of communications and information systems, Argos Press, Canberra, 2011.
  • [4] For more detail, see T. Maclean and Z. Wu, Radiowave propagation over ground, Chapman & Hall: London, 1993; and R. Collin, Antennas and radiowave propagation, McGraw-Hill: New York, 1985.
  • [5] Further detail on sky-wave communications can be found in J. Betts, High frequency communications, The English Universities Press Ltd: London, 1967; G. Braun, Planning and engineering of shortwave links, Siemens Aktiengesellschaft (John Wiley & Sons): Berlin, 1986; J. Goodman, HF communications: science and technology, Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York, 1992; and N. Maslin, HF communications, Pitman: London, 1987.
  • [6] For more detail, see G. Roda, Tropospheric scatter radio relay links: guide to design and implementation, Applicazioni Radio Elettroniche SPA: Castallanza, 1986.
  • [7] See for example: J. Keller, “Military wants to develop RF phased array common modules for the defense industry”, Military & Aerospace Electronics, 1 May 2018. https://www.militaryaerospace.com/defense-executive/article/16707322/military-wants-to-develop-rf-phased-array-common-modules-for-the-defense-industry, accessed 8 December 2019.
  • [8] M. Ryan and M. Frater, Tactical communications for the digitized battlefield, Artech House: Boston, 2002.
  • [9] For summaries of major vulnerabilities, see: T. Harrison, K. Johnson, T.G. Roberts, Space threat assessment, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2019.Defense Intelligence Agency, Challenges to security in space, 2019.M. Davis, The Australian Defence Force and contested space, Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), August 2019.
  • [10] For details of the ‘Fractional Bombardment System’, see <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_Orbital_Bombardment_System> accessed 26 January 2018.
  • [11] M. Mowthorpe, The militarization and weaponization of space, Lexington Books: New York, 2004.
  • [12] W. Graham and P. Fry, ‘The other North Korean threat’, Washington Post, 15 August 2017.
  • [13] US Department of Commerce, ‘Space weather: storms from the sun’, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [website], available at <http://www.noaa.gov/explainers/space-weather-storms-from-sun> accessed 26 January 2018.
  • [14] R.B. Horne, A.A. Gauert, N.P. Meredith, D. Bischer, V. Maget, D. Heynderickx, and D. Pitchford, “Space weather impacts on satellites and forecasting the Earth’s electron radiation belts with SPACECAST”, Space Weather, Vol 11, pp. 169-186.
  • [15] J. Samenow, ‘How a solar storm nearly destroyed life as we know it two years ago’, Washington Post [website], 23 July 2014, available at <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2014/07/23/how-a-solar-storm-nearly-destroyed-life-as-we-know-it-two-years-ago/?utm_term=.01b71a1392ee> accessed 27 January 2018.
  • [16] National Research Council, ‘Severe space weather events: understanding societal and economic impacts: a workshop report’, The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine [website] 2008, available at <https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12507/severe-space-weather-events-understanding-societal-and-economic-impacts-a> accessed 27 January 2018; A. Phillips, ‘Near miss: the solar superstorm of July 2012’, NASA [website], 23 July 2014, available at <https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/23jul_superstorm/> accessed 27 January 2018.
  • [17] Lloyd’s, Solar storm risk to the North American electric grid, 2013.
  • [18] Lloyd’s, Solar storm risk to the North American electric grid, 2013.
  • [19] P. Riley, ‘On the probability of occurrence of extreme space weather events’, Space Weather, February 2014.
  • [20] Lloyd’s, Solar storm risk to the North American electric grid, 2013.
  • [21] M.H. MacAlester and W. Murtagh, ‘Extreme space weather impact: an emergency management perspective’, Space Weather, August 2014.
  • [22] T. Foley, ‘Meteors and solar wind: serious threat or hot air’, Communications Week International, 29 June 1998, p. 10.
  • [23] R.B. Horne, A.A. Gauert, N.P. Meredith, D. Bischer, V. Maget, D. Heynderickx, and D. Pitchford, “Space weather impacts on satellites and forecasting the Earth’s electron radiation belts with SPACECAST”, Space Weather, Vol 11, pp. 169-186.
  • [24] T. Harrison, K. Johnson, T.G. Roberts, Space threat assessment, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2019.
  • [25] Defense Intelligence Agency, Challenges to security in space, 2019.
  • [26] A.K. Maini and V. Agrawal, Satellite technology: principles and applications, John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, 2014.
  • [27] See Bill Gertz, ‘Russia flight tests anti-satellite missile’, The Washington Free Beacon [website], 2 December 2015, available at <http://freebeacon.com/national-security/russia-conducts-successful-flight-test-of-anti-satellite-missile/> accessed 27 January 2018; and Bill Gertz, ‘Russia flight tests anti-satellite missile’, The Washington Free Beacon [website], 27 May 2016, available at <http://freebeacon.com/national-security/russia-flight-tests-anti-satellite-missile/> accessed 27 January 2018.
  • [28] 2007 Chinese Anti-satellite Missile Test, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Chinese_anti-satellite_missile_test, accessed 8 December 2019.
  • [29] Mission Shakti, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_Shaktim, accessed 8 December 2019.
  • [30] A.K. Maini and V. Agrawal, Satellite technology: principles and applications, John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, 2014; N.B. Weeden, ‘Through a glass, darkly: Chinese, American, and Russian anti-satellite testing in space’, Secure World Foundation, 17 March 2014.
  • [31] Defense Intelligence Agency, Challenges to security in space, 2019.
  • [32] N. Johnson, The soviet year in space: 1987, Teleydyne Brown Engineering: Colorado, 1988; also Global Security Organization, ‘Co-orbital ASAT’, Global Security Organization [website], available at <http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/russia/coorb.htm> accessed 27 January 2018.
  • [33] A.K. Maini and V. Agrawal, Satellite technology: principles and applications, John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, 2014.
  • [34] P. Podvig, ‘Russia to resume work on airborne laser ASAT’, Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces, 13 November 2012.
  • [35] For further details, see <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_YAL-1> accessed 27 January 2018.
  • [36] T. Harrison, K. Johnson, T.G. Roberts, Space Threat Assessment, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2019.
  • [37] Defense Intelligence Agency, Challenges to Security in space, 2019.
  • [38] France to develop anti-satellite laser weapons: Defence minister, https://www.france24.com/en/20190725-france-develop-anti-satellite-laser-weapons-defence-minister, accessed 8 December 2019.
  • [39] D.J. Kessler and B.G. Cour-Palais, "Collision frequency of artificial satellites: the creation of a debris belt", Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol 83, pp. 2637–2646, 1978.